This is a guest essay by Dr Theodore
N. (Ted) Pauls.
In my view, the topic of Ted’s essay is highly relevant to people who live in the liberal democracies. I often hear people claim that the priority given to personal freedom in those societies has caused them to become excessively individualistic. How can defenders of individual liberty respond to those who claim that excessive individualism has contributed to narcissistic behaviour, social isolation, and mental illness? We can’t deny that many individuals lack integrity in their dealings with others. We can’t deny that many individuals live lonely lives, lacking positive relationships with others. We can’t deny that many individuals seek to escape from reality and that some of them end up delusional.
However, we can explain that it is wrong to jump to the conclusion that the solution to those problems lies in further restricting opportunities for individual self-direction. We can explain that humans cannot fully flourish unless they have opportunities to exercise the practical wisdom and integrity required to direct their own lives in accordance with goals they choose and values they endorse. And we can also explain that the kind of individualism that we endorse is the flourishing individualism that Ted Pauls writes about in the following essay.
Ted writes:
- Leonard Peikoff’s Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand (1991),
- Edward W. Younkins’s Flourishing and Happiness in a Free Society: Toward a Synthesis of Aristotelianism, Austrian Economics, and Ayn Rand’s Objectivism (2011), and
- Douglas J. Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen’s The Perfectionist Turn: From Metanorms to Metaethics (2016).
Each of these works contributes to a
shared theme: the defense of individual flourishing as the core moral aim and
the view that political society exists to enable, not direct, that flourishing.
Peikoff articulates Ayn Rand’s Objectivist ethics and politics as a fully
integrated philosophical system grounded in reason, egoism, and laissez-faire
capitalism. Younkins seeks to synthesize Aristotelian virtue ethics, Austrian
economics, and Objectivist principles to argue that human happiness and social
cooperation are best achieved in a free society. Den Uyl and Rasmussen develop
a metanormative liberalism in which the moral diversity of flourishing
individuals is protected by political principles that are themselves ethically
grounded but non-perfectionist in character.
The result of their combined
perspectives is a powerful moral and political framework that answers the
challenge of modern pluralism without surrendering the objectivity of value. It
is a theory that preserves the ethical centrality of virtue and the reality of
human goods while insisting on the primacy of liberty and individual
responsibility. This article unfolds this framework in five parts: (1) the
moral foundations of individual flourishing, (2) the structure of virtue and
self-perfection, (3) the social context of flourishing, (4) the political
principles that protect freedom, and (5) the philosophical implications of
flourishing individualism for contemporary thought.
The Moral Foundations of Flourishing
At the heart of flourishing
individualism is the idea that human life has an objective standard of value
and that each individual must discover and pursue their own good through
rational action. This view stands in opposition to both subjectivist relativism
and collectivist moralities that subordinate the individual to external
purposes.
Peikoff Explains Rand on Reason and on Life as the
Standard of Value
Leonard Peikoff, in Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand presents a moral framework that begins with the facts of human nature. This book is the first comprehensive statement of Rand’s philosophy. Peikoff discusses Rand’s views on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. Rand’s philosophy asserts that existence exists independently of consciousness, that reason is the primary means of understanding the world and one’s place in it, and that individuals should act in pursuit of their own self-interest. Ayn Rand’s ethics, as he explains, holds that value is that which one acts to gain or keep, and that the fundamental alternative at the base of value is life versus death. Since human beings do not survive automatically, but by the use of reason, the standard of value is not mere survival, but rational flourishing—living as the kind of being one is.
This leads to a morality of rational
egoism. The purpose of morality is not to sacrifice the self for others, nor others
for the self, but to guide each individual in achieving their own happiness
through the use of reason. Moral principles are principles of self-perfection,
of the kind of character and action required to live a fully human life.
Objectivist ethics is thus neither
altruistic nor hedonistic. It affirms the individual as an end in himself and
views the pursuit of one’s own rational interests as both morally right and
practically necessary. It calls for independence, integrity, productivity, and
pride—virtues that are both personally fulfilling and socially beneficial.
Rand’s Objectivism holds that an
individual’s choice to live is required for ethical obligations to exist. On
the other hand, Younkins, Den Uyl, and Rasmussen all maintain that there is an
ethical obligation to choose life because life is one’s natural end and good
and therefore choiceworthy.
Younkins on Flourishing and Human Nature
Edward W. Younkins, in Flourishing and Happiness in a Free Society, expands on this foundation by situating it within the broader tradition of Aristotelian eudaimonism. He argues that human beings have a nature with specific potentials and that morality consists in actualizing these potentials over the course of a lifetime. Flourishing (or eudaimonia) is an activity of the soul in accordance with reason and virtue.
Younkins draws on Aristotle, Rand, contemporary
neo-Aristotelian philosophers, Austrian economists, and others to argue that
flourishing is not reducible to pleasure, wealth, or external success. It is a
state of integrated self-realization involving rationality, moral character,
purposeful work, and meaningful relationships. It requires that individuals
make choices consistent with their nature and long-term well-being.
Crucially, flourishing cannot be
given or imposed—it must be chosen and achieved. This emphasis on agency echoes
Objectivism’s moral individualism while adding a richer account of the variety
and depth of human goods. The good life is not a fixed pattern but a dynamic
process of self-perfection.
He also explains that Objectivist
claims of value objectivity and claims of Austrian economists are compatible
because that involve different levels of analysis. Rand’s sense of value-objectivity
complements the Austrian sense of value-subjectivity because personal
flourishing on an objective level transcends subjective value preferences.
Younkins’s book presents the
essentials of a potential paradigm or conceptual framework for individual human
flourishing in a free society. It is an attempt to forge an understanding from
various disciplines and to integrate them into consistent, coherent, and
systematic whole. His goal is to have a paradigm in which the views of reality,
human nature, knowledge, values, action, and society make up an integrated
whole. He recognizes that his potential framework will grow and evolve as
scholars engage and extend its ideas.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen on Individualistic
Perfectionism
Douglas J. Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen, in ThePerfectionist Turn, argue that ethical theory must return to a teleological and perfectionist framework that recognizes the centrality of human flourishing. Against dominant trends in analytic philosophy that treat ethics as a matter of rules, duties, or utility, they insist that the good life is the ultimate standard of evaluation.
Their contribution lies in
developing a concept of “individualistic perfectionism”: the view that the good
is self-perfection, but that this perfection takes diverse forms based on
individual contexts, capacities, and choices. Flourishing is not a single ideal
life but a framework in which many legitimate variations of the good life are
possible.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen define human
flourishing as objective, inclusive, individualized, agent-relative,
self-directed, and social. A person’s flourishing is desired because it is
desirable and choice-worthy.
This view preserves the objectivity
of morality while respecting the uniqueness of persons. It sees ethics as
aspirational, not prohibitive—as a guide to excellence rather than a list of
constraints. And it affirms the value of individual agency, creativity, and
responsibility in moral development.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen defend a template of
responsibility, rather than a template of respect, as a framework within which
to based one’s self-perfection. This agent-centered template recognizes the
existential condition that each responsible and choosing individual must make a
life for himself. Under this template self-direction and integrity are central
to morality because personal responsibility for one’s life is primary.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen explain that
political philosophy is unavoidably tethered to deeper, more foundational. and comprehensive
perspectives and frameworks regarding reality, human nature, and ethics,
Championing the tethered character of political philosophy, Den Uyl and Rasmussen advocate individualistic
perfectionism and the template of responsibility for a person’s
self-perfection.
The Virtues of Flourishing:
Self-Perfection in Practice
Flourishing individualism depends
not only on abstract principles but on the cultivation of character. Virtue is
the bridge between human nature and human flourishing: it is the habitual
excellence of the soul in action.
All of these thinkers agree that
virtues are not mere social conventions or rules of obedience but rational
habits that support an individual’s life and happiness. While they differ in
terminology and emphasis, they converge on a core set of traits that enable a
flourishing life.
Objectivist Virtue Theory
Peikoff identifies seven cardinal
virtues in Ayn Rand’s ethics: rationality, independence, integrity, honesty,
justice, productiveness, and pride. Each of these is a rational requirement of
life, rooted in the objective needs of human survival and flourishing.
- Rationality is the primary virtue: it is
the commitment to reason as one’s only source of knowledge and guide to
action.
- Independence follows from rationality: it
is the reliance on one’s own judgment rather than on the beliefs or
authority of others.
- Integrity is fidelity to one’s rational
principles.
- Honesty is the refusal to fake
reality.
- Justice is the principle of judging
others objectively and giving them what they deserve.
- Productiveness is the creation of material
values.
- Pride is moral ambitiousness—a
commitment to achieving one’s moral worth.
These virtues are not sacrifices but
achievements. They are the means by which an individual shapes a life worth
living.
Younkins on Integrated Living
Younkins expands this list by
emphasizing the integration of mind, body, and character. He argues that
flourishing involves not just isolated traits but the harmonious development of
the whole person. This includes intellectual virtues like wisdom and understanding,
moral virtues like courage and benevolence, and practical virtues like industry
and perseverance.
He also stresses the importance of
purposeful work and the creation of value. Echoing Rand and the Austrians,
Younkins sees economic activity not as a separate sphere but as an expression
of human creativity and agency. Work is not a mere means to leisure; it is part
of the good life.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen on the Diversity of Excellence
Den Uyl and Rasmussen agree that
virtue is central but emphasize that virtue must be contextualized. Because
flourishing is individualized, the specific content of virtue can vary with
personal identity, role, and situation. What prudence or courage demands may
differ between a soldier, a scholar, and an entrepreneur.
They resist reducing virtue to
rule-following or to a fixed ideal life. Instead, they see it as a dynamic and
developmental concept: excellence in the use of practical reason to navigate
the world in pursuit of self-perfection. This view aligns with Aristotle’s
emphasis on phronesis (practical wisdom) as the master virtue guiding
others.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen add practical
wisdom (prudence) to the Objectivist list of virtues. They explain that reason
is a self-directing activity and that practical wisdom is the excellent use of
practical reason and the central integrating virtue of a flourishing life.
The Social Context of Flourishing
Flourishing is personal, but it is
not solitary. Human beings are social by nature, and many goods—friendship,
love, trade, knowledge—require the presence of others. The moral vision of
flourishing individualism recognizes this fact without collapsing the
individual into the collective.
The Role of Trade and Civil Society
Peikoff emphasizes that trade—both
economic and spiritual—is the proper mode of human interaction. In a society of
rational individuals, people deal with one another by mutual consent for mutual
benefit. Force, fraud, and parasitism are morally and practically incompatible
with a flourishing life.
Younkins adds that civil society—the
network of voluntary institutions, markets, and communities—is the natural
habitat for human flourishing. Drawing on Austrian economics, he shows how
spontaneous order arises from the free choices of individuals pursuing their
own goals. Markets are not chaotic or amoral but forms of cooperation that
reflect human values.
Younkins explains that an
entrepreneur attains wealth and his other objectives by providing people with
goods and services that further flourishing on earth. He views entrepreneurs as
specialists in prudence—the virtue of applying one’s talents to the goal of
living well. In turn, Den Uyl and Rasmussen see a parallel between
entrepreneurship and moral conduct. They discuss the creativity of human beings
both in producing wealth and in building moral character, two enterprises that
require alertness, insight, and evaluation and that parts of a flourishing
life. are parts of a flourishing life.
They explain that both ethical wealth and economic wealth are a function of one’s
actions taken to produce a good life.
Virtue and Community
While the state must not impose
virtue, communities and relationships play an essential role in cultivating it.
Younkins, Den Uyl, and Rasmussen all stress the importance of cultural norms,
moral education, and social practices that support character development.
Families, friendships, institutions of learning, and the arts all contribute to
the conditions of flourishing.
But these institutions must be
voluntary and diverse. The ethical pluralism of flourishing individualism
requires a social order that permits experimentation, innovation, and personal
growth.
Political Philosophy and the
Framework for Flourishing
Ethics identifies the good life for
the individual; political philosophy identifies the kind of social order that
makes the pursuit of that life possible.
Peikoff, Rand, and Objectivism: Rights as Moral
Principles
Peikoff and Rand emphasize that
because human beings survive by reason, and because reason is a volitional
faculty, freedom is the political condition required for moral agency. Rights
are objective principles that protect the individual’s freedom to act.
The proper political system,
therefore, is laissez-faire capitalism: a system that protects rights and bans
the initiation of force. It is not morally neutral but grounded in the
recognition that each individual has a moral right to live for their own sake.
Younkins: Natural Law, Natural Rights, and Civil
Society
Younkins explains that the natural
negative right to liberty is concerned with regulating conditions for human
flourishing They are not directly concerned with promoting the attainment of
flourishing. He agrees with Den Uyl and Rasmussen’s long held view that rights are
metanormative principles that protect self-directedness, a universal
requirement to all manifestations of human flourishing.
He also demonstrates that political
freedom enables the emergence of complex, adaptive systems—markets,
associations, cultural norms—that support flourishing. He draws on Austrian
insights to argue that no central planner can substitute for the decentralized
knowledge and creativity of individuals.
This view also entails limits on
political authority. The state must be constrained by rule of law and dedicated
to protecting liberty—not managing outcomes or mandating virtues.
Den Uyl and Rasmussen: The Metanormative Structure
of Liberalism
Unlike Rand, Den Uyl and Rasmussen
(as well as Younkins) distinguish between normative and metanormative
principles. Ethics is normative: it guides individuals in living well. Politics
is metanormative: it defines the conditions under which individuals can
peacefully pursue diverse goods.
This leads to a perfectionist yet
non-perfectionist liberalism: one that values flourishing and virtues but
refrains from legislating them. The liberal order is justified not by
neutrality but by its compatibility with ethical pluralism and moral agency.
Philosophical Implications and the
Future of Flourishing Individualism
Flourishing individualism reconciles
objectivity with freedom, pluralism with virtue, and individuality with
community.
It offers:
- Objectivity
without authoritarianism:
Morality is real, but political authority is limited.
- Pluralism
without relativism:
There are many good lives, but not all lives are equally good.
- Agency
in a world of systems:
Individuals are not products of structures but shapers of their own
destiny.
- A
humanistic ideal:
The individual is not a cog in the machine but a creator of values.
In a time of cultural fragmentation
and political overreach, this philosophy offers a bold and humane alternative.
It calls on us to build a society that respects liberty, cultivates virtue, and
honors the rationality and free will of each person.
Together, these books by Peikoff,
Younkins, and Den Uyl and Rasmussen provide essential ideas for a robust framework for understanding
flourishing individualism—a life of rational self-interest, virtue, and
freedom.
References
Den Uyl, Douglas J., and Douglas B.
Rasmussen. The Perfectionist Turn: From Metanorms to Metaethics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016.
Peikoff, Leonard. Objectivism:
The Philosophy of Ayn Rand. New York: Dutton, 1991.
Younkins, Edward W. Flourishing
and Happiness in a Free Society: Toward a Synthesis of Aristotelianism,
Austrian Economics, and Ayn Rand’s Objectivism. Lanham, MD: University
Press of America, 2011.
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